Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms Essay Example for Free

Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms Essay In the 1940s, Ernst Mayr coined the term Biological Species Concept that was subsequently widely embraced by the scientific community. The definition stated that Species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups. Certain mechanisms are in place to prevent species from interbreeding with others and these are referred to as reproductive isolating mechanisms, which are biological incompatibilities. There are many mechanisms acting on natural populations and these are broadly grouped into two categories namely prezygotic and postzygotic mechanisms. Prezygotic isolating mechanisms are those mechanisms that isolate species before fertilisation i.e. before a zygote is formed. They include geographical, ecological, temporal, ethological, mechanical, morphological and gametic isolation. These mechanisms lesson the possibility of gametes from different species coming into contact and hence forming a zygote. One prezygotic isolating mechanism is ecological isolation, also referred to as habitat isolation. Ecological isolation prevents different species that live in the same territory but different habitats from interbreeding. These species are referred to as sympatric species since they occur in the same territories. Individuals mate in their preferred habitat, and therefore do not meet individuals of other species with different ecological preferences. An example of ecological isolation occurs within the Rana genus. R. grylio, the pig frog and R. areolata, the gopher frog both occur around New Orleans, Louisiana. The exceptionally aquatic pig frog lives in deep ponds, lakes and marshes amongst surfacing vegetation and breeds in deep water so has no contact with the gopher frog which lives in burrows during the day, and in the swamp margins at night and breeds in shallow water. This way the possibility of interbreeding between the two species is eliminated. Temporal isolation, also known as seasonal isolation is a prezygotic mechanism that prevents interbreeding between species. Temporal isolation is the isolation of species by changing the time at which they release gametes.  A particularly strong example of temporal isolation occurs in three tropical orchid species of the genus Dendrobium. The species only flower for a single day, opening at dawn and withering by nightfall. The flowering of each species is in response to the same environmental stimuli, such as a sudden storm on a hot day, but the lag time between the occurrence of the stimulus and the flowering is eight, nine, and ten or eleven in the different species. Since they flower for a single day, inter-species fertilization is made impossible because when one species has flowered the others are either not yet mature or already withered. Other examples of temporal isolation in natural populations are not as pronounced such as in cases were species are isolated due to breeding during different seasons like Sciurus carolinensis, the gray squirrel which mates in July and August; and Sc. niger, the fox squirrel which breeds in May and June. Another prezygotic isolating mechanism is ethological isolation or behavioural isolation. This mechanism prevents species, mostly animals from interbreeding based on their different behavioural patterns. It affects animals that occur within the same territory and habitat but with different mating behaviours. In most animals, mates are chosen in a species-specific approach often after species-specific mating rituals of some form. Matings follow these rituals which can be ended if at least one of the mating parties decides that the process leading to the mating is not as expected. Ethological isolation can be strong reproductive isolating mechanism in animals also between closely related species. An effective example of ethological isolation occurs in certain frog species of the Hyla species. H. versicolor, the gray tree frog and the closely related H. femoralis, pine wood tree frog often breed in the same ponds. Both species are physically very similar but their male mating calls, which last about three seconds and sound the same to humans can be differentiated by the female tree frogs and thus insures species-specific mating. This is also the case when considering why dogs and wolves dont mate as frequently as expected because of their different behavioural patterns. Mechanical isolation is a mechanism that prevents copulation between different animal species because of incompatible shape and size of the  genitalia. This occurs in species are sympatric and live in a common habitat and have overlapping breeding seasons without any ethological isolating mechanisms. In plants, variation in flower structure can inhibit cross species pollination. In California, two sage species, namely Salvia mellifera and S. apiana exhibit this form of prezygotic isolation. Two- lipped S. mellifera has stamens and style in their upper lip, whereas S. apiana has long stamens and style and a specialized floral configuration. Small and medium sized bees that carry pollen on their backs pollinate the two-lipped flowers, and large carpenter and bumble bees that carry pollen on their wings and other body parts pollinate S. apiana. This mechanism thus ensures that pollen cannot be transferred between the species, as only the corresponding pollinators are able to transfer pollen to the style of each flower. Another prezygotic isolation mechanism is morphological isolation, which in some cases overlaps with mechanical isolation mechanisms. This isolating mechanism prevents mating due to differences in size and shape between species. Morphological isolation prevents the spread of genes between the oak toad, Bufo quercicus and the Gulf Coast toad, Bufo vallicpes due to the size variation between the two species. The female oak toad has a maximum length of approximately 3 centimetres whereas the smallest Gulf Coast males are about twice as long. This way the size differences between the spaces make copulation extremely unlikely as male oak toads are too small to grasp the female Gulf Coast toad and male Gulf Coast toads are large enough to, and generally do, eat the female oak toads. The last prezygotic isolating mechanism is gametic isolation also known as gametic mortality. Gametic isolation is the mechanism in which fertilization cannot occur between species generally due to chemical incompatibilities between their gametes. In animals that practice internal fertilization, sperm may not be able to survive in the females sperm receptacles. Some plant species, pollen grains of one species usually cannot germinate on the stigma of another species thus preventing fertilization between species. Since many aquatic animals disperse their ova and sperm into the water, gametesof different species do not have affinities for each other. This was  demonstrated between the sea urchins Stronglocentrotus purpuratus and S. franciscanus when after induction of simultaneous realease of eggs and sperm, all resultant fertilizations were between eggs and sperms of the same species. Postzygotic isolation mechanisms are those reproductive isolating mechanisms, which are effective after the union of gametes of different species i.e. after fertilisation. Postzygotic isolating mechanisms include hybrid inviability, hybrid sterility and hybrid breakdown. Postzygotic isolating mechanisms reduce the viability or fertility of hybrids or their progeny. These mechanisms come into play when hybridzygotes are formed either naturally or unnaturally. Hybrid inviability is the postzygotic isolating mechanism that occurs between fertilisation and birth. This mechanism prevents the full development of zygotes and thus leads to their subsequent death. An example in animals is the death of artificially created sheep-goat hybrid embryos in early developmental stages before birth. Hybrid inviability also occurs in plants, most commonly resulting in hybrid seeds either failing to germinate or dying shortly after germination. Hybrid sterility or hybrid infertility is a postzygotic reproductive isolating mechanism which affects hybrids that survive to adulthood. This mechanism creates sterile hybrids i.e. hybrids that cannot produce offspring. The most well known example is the case of the mule. When a horse and a donkey mate they are capable of producing offspring called mules. But mules are sterile, leaving them out of the gene pool thus maintaining species integrity. Hybrid breakdown is the last postzygotic isolating mechanism in place to maintain species differentiation. It occurs in cases of crossbreeding were hybrids of inter species matings are viable and fertile. Hybrid breakdown occurs commonly and results in the hybrids offspring or the F2 generation being unviable or significantly weaker and unable to contribute genes to a next generation. Certain cotton plants show this form of reproductive  isolation such as Gossypium barbadense, G. hirsutum and G. tomentosum which produce hybrids that seem viable and fertile, but their offspring die either as seeds, early during development or develop into weaker plants unable to compete and reproduce. Reproductive isolation combines traits that reduce gene flow, such as mate choice or fertilization barriers, with traits that select against genes that have flowed, such as hybrid incompatibility. Reproductive isolating mechanisms are ultimately mechanisms evolved in species to prevent interbreeding with other species and thus allow for scientists to differentiate between species using the biological species concept. Bibliography Futuyma, DJ. 1998. Evolutionary biology, 3rd ed., Sinauer Assoc. Inc., USA Griffiths, A.J.F., Miller, J.H. Suzuki, D.T., Lewontin, R.C. and Gelbart, W.M. 1999. Introduction to Genetic Analysis. W.H Freeman Co. New York. Hale, W. and Margham, J. 1988. Collins Dictionary of Biology. Collins, UK. Mayr, E. 1942 Systematics and the Origin of Species. Columbia University Press, New York, USA. Mayr, E. (1970) Populations, Species, and Evolution. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. Starr, C. and Taggart, R. (2001). Biology, The Unity and Diversity of Life, 9th ed. Brookes/ Cole, USA. www.abacus.gene.ucl.ac.uk/jim/Sp/isolmech.html www.library.thinkquest.org/ 19926/java/library/article/17a.ht

Stages of Building Construction

Stages of Building Construction Building a project involves various stages including initial preparation of the clients brief, scheduling and research, specifications and construction development. Plans, designs and changes occur throughout a project, inevitably, therefore there must be a unified desire for communication, understanding and agreement. Design/Planning In order for a project to develop into an eventual success communication, understanding and agreement are essential. Comprehensive consultations concerning desires in terms of design, constructability and practicality are imperative. An insight into the clients personal requirements and expectations will also prove fundamental to sustain achievement. However clients are not always exact about all the characteristics of their requirements; professional teams therefore act as advisors. As opinions change plans will have to be altered consequently to accommodate the new needs (Ashworth 2005). Sufficient planning and designing must be undertaken before any sort of construction commences on any development. Planning consists of the early congregation of information and ideas before a detailed design and construction process is exemplified. During this period parties involved in the development should identify any particular requirements, discuss important issues, resolve any disparities if any and assign tasks amongst other requests. Before advanced designing and development can begin, planning authorities must consent to the proposed project after comprehensive assessment. In some cases warrants must be granted for building work to begin on a site, most contractors require this to demolish or build on a site (Civitelo 2007). As the size and/or scale of a project increases costs will ultimately also go up (Ashworth 2005), therefore the planning team will have to combine the design of the project with cost saving solutions. This may mean making sacrifices in terms of some materials used in the project; this will for example reduce costs and allow the funds to be transferred to building a project of larger magnitude as costs rise. For this reason the planning stage is extremely important as conclusions will have to be drawn as to how much space is actually required for the development, too little and the project could be considered a disaster, too much and it could prove wasteful. There are many standards and legislation in the construction industry; these are set up for the benefit of the client making use of the development. Other legislation on the other hand is aimed at protecting the environment and wildlife. The purpose of legislation is to provide a regulatory body to ensure the efficient build of safe places for work and handling. A forthright view held by many is that legislation and standards add to costs and are not munch benefit at all however these claims need to be carefully dissected. Legislative requirements are aimed at increasing safety and are approved by a professional body having conducted tests and analysis. Projects, however small, are affected by an immense set legislation; primarily because efficient development is profoundly reliant on safe places of work and the safe handling of construction material and plants. As a result of this projects will always consist of a large team including clients, engineers, architects, contractors, government and regulating bodies and labourers (Ashworth 2005). An addition to this team is lawyers. When plans are drawn up for a project the parties involved must agree to contracts containing clauses with regards the development in question. Content of the contract may include articles with contemplation to budget, time and materials amongst other clauses. These need to be carefully examined as they can prove to become the reason for the downfall of a failed project. During the design process planners and designers must outline the function and suitability of materials whilst taking into consideration economic and ecological consequences (Hinze 2010). Architects for example would be most involved in the design considerations of a project, however as some parts of a plan cannot be considered without first finding out about planning consent, because of this a reasonable amount of significant decisions cannot be considered. When designing a project plans submitted must take into account expenses as prices are relentlessly rising. Today, most projects involve an organization which is able to economically forecast costs of not only principal costs but also costs of control services. The establishment also find the most economical ways of ensuring that a development does not run over budget. Before plans are put forward a review must be taken on designs to ensure that the ideas can be implemented in terms of both construction techniques and materials. The aim of these reviews called Constructability Reviews is to minimize the number of changes at a later stage, reduce delays and rising costs (Palmer 2002). Construction Once construction is ready to begin, preliminary work needs to commence to allow initial works to be carried out, these include the clearing of the work site, a ground survey to asses the ground conditions, setting up of sanitary facilities, water/power supplies and offices and storage areas. Sufficient welfare amenities will need to be established on a construction site for use by workers throughout a development, this will need to be arranged by the project manager in advance. Provisions will include rest rooms, toilets, storage rooms, changing rooms and washrooms as well. (Hinze 2010) These facilities will be essential for the length of a project to evade disturbance to a project. In some circumstances however, the project manager may not require some facilities and will instead be able to make use of permanent services available on site. For example, the client may allow the construction team to use toilets already installed on site. This will therefore reduce costs which may have been incurred if the welfare facilities were required. When welfare amenities are required the project manager should aim to locate these in various locations and not a single area, this reason for this is that having them in one area may prove to be an inconvenience. For example if the site is very large, then the project manager may find that time is wasted going to and from the welfare facilities rather than using the time constructively. When the preliminary works have been completed demolition on the site can begin, since the site is located on a 10 ha site of old forest 5 miles out of the town centre; suitable access and transportation will need to be arranged for plant/machinery. The demolition stage will result in the recycling of materials, the forest trees for example can be recycled for timber use during the construction process; this increases the developments sustainable considerations. After the site has been fully cleared, excavation will be completed to create the required ground conditions, be it flat or, according to the design specifications. In many cases the land in which a project is developed can provide difficulties in terms of workability. Loose soil, often at a shallow depth, is an inevitable problem that can be solved using deep foundations; in this case however, shallow foundations will be used as outlined in the brief (Palmer 2002). The excavation stage will also prepare the site for eventual service installation and the construction of the substructure. Excavation will be carried out using various machines, plant is required during the construction process in order to increase production, minimize labour requirements, conduct high standards of constructions and also possibly reduce overall costs (Cooke 1997). During the planning process decisions must be made with regards the availability and use of plants. The substructure will consist of reinforced concrete foundations to allow sufficient support of the buildings by transporting the load to the ground, this will be especially vital for the community hall which will consist of a steel frame and metal cladding roof. Service works will also need to be carried out during the substructure stage to allow for pipes/cable routes to be considered also, drainage and refuse systems will need to be allowed to pass through and leave the various sites, be it below ground or through walls. Services however must not pass below foundations (Hinze 2010). The superstructure on the other hand will require extensive work, relating to the floors, walls and roofs; these will all be subject to the design specifications. Scaffolding will be required when working on raised platforms i.e. first floor levels, roofs etc, these will consist of steel or aluminium alloy tubes. As the development will consist of a 200 home housing estate, the homes will be of identical layout and size, for this reason pre-fabricated timber roof trusses will be delivered and hoisted into position before being placed on the supporting walls. The floors and ceilings in the homes will be timber constructed where as the community centre will consist of a concrete floor and metal cladding roof. The walls in the homes will be brick and block masonry fully insulated cavity walls, these will be plastered inside. Completion of the substructures and superstructures will then allow the services to be introduced to the buildings; these include drainage, pluming, gas and sanitary works. Some services will require installation below ground, specifically in trenches. Service works generally cause widespread disruption to the public, especially to traffic through road works; there should be a significantly lower impact however, since the housing project is being developed on an old forest site. Local authority permission must be granted before work commences, this will involve in the inspection of works carried out already and final tests being conducted. The plumbing works, which are installed above ground, will benefit from construction after the basic structural works have been completed. The finishes relating to the build require extensive organisation to ensure that they are completed accordingly as certain processes cannot begin until others have been completed. For this reason, a larger number of workers should be employed to carry out the finishing works simultaneously when possible, to ensure timely completion. The landscaping with regards this project should not be very costly as the location chosen for the project is an old forest, in comparison to some builds which are built in an area which requires more greenery and trees to be planted. Methods of circulation and travel will need to be established however including roads and footpaths. With regards the community centre security will need to be addressed as a priority as it will be serving the local community, including children for example. The project will not be completed until the site has been fully cleared and inspected. All surplus material and debris will not to be transported and disposed of accordingly or recycled if possible. Plants, offices and huts will need to be dismantled and cleared as well. The site must be left in a very good condition to allow inspection by various teams and bodies to ensure the development is both up to standard, matches the design specification and is also safe for occupation (Cooke 1997).

Politics and Social Policy in Australia

Politics and Social Policy in Australia Social policy are the guidelines used for the changing, maintenance or the creation of living conditions that are perceived to be conducive to the welfare of human beings or people. This is what makes it part of the public policy that deals with social issues (Alcock, Erskine, May, 2003). Social policy applies to the policies used by governments for welfare and social protection. The main concern under this is the social services and the welfare of the state. Social policy also applies to the ways in which the welfare is developed within a given society where it stands for a range of issues which extend far beyond the governments actions. This includes the ways used to promote the welfare and the social-economic conditions which enable or shape the development of the welfare. Social Policy can be used to refer to the academic study of the subject. The main aim of Social Policies is to improve the welfare of human beings by for instance meeting their various needs. It can thus be defined as public policy and practice in the areas of health care, human services, labour, education, inequality and other issues like criminal justice. Social policy can be influenced by among other things, religion and the politician’s religious beliefs. The conservatives in the political arena prefer a more traditional approach which can be able to favour individual initiative and private enterprise in social policy. Those who are considered to be political liberals are for the idea of guaranteeing equal rights and entitlements to everybody. They prefer using the state regulation or insurance so as to support their ideologies. Although in some areas Social policy is only known for the regulation and governing of human behaviour as far as sexuality and morality issues are concerned, social policies deal with among other things; the rules surrounding marriage and divorce in most societies, adoption, legal status of recreational drugs, prostitution, euthanasia, abortion and how its practice can be regulated(Alcock, 2003). Social Policy and administration was developed in the early twentieth century with an aim of complementing the social work studies. The subject has since developed to become an academic subject concerned with the welfare of the state and social services. It is not a discipline but a subject area which borrows a lot from social science disciplines like sociology, social work, economics, political science, history, philosophy, law among others (Alcock, 2003). Welfare State is an English term used to refer to the provision of welfare services to people by the government (Titmuss, 1963). This type of provision indicates that the concerned government assumes responsibility for the welfare of its citizens. States which provide the welfare state are referred to as welfare states. In some states, the welfare state is provided by government services which may either be independent or voluntary. The provider of the welfare services can also be the state government or a company or agency sponsored by the state, a private company or organization or a non-profit organization. In such cases, the welfare state changes and it is replaced with other terms like ‘welfare system’ and ‘welfare society’. Welfare is used to mean ‘well being’. For instance in welfare economics, it is used in terms of the well being and interests of people and the things which they choose to have. Welfare can also be used to refer to various services provided by the state to protect people under different conditions; for instance health, after retirement, childhood etc. In the European Union, this is called Social Protection. In the United States, welfare is the financial aid given to the poor people for instance the Temporary Aid which is given to Needy families in America (Titmuss, 1963). The welfare state means different things in different countries. In some countries, it may be used to mean the ideal provision model for the citizens whereby the state takes the responsibility to provide comprehensive and universal welfare of its citizens which is basically the welfare provided by the state. In countries where the term means social protection, the provision is undertaken by the combination of independent, voluntary and government services; this is what makes the countries be referred to as welfare states (Holetzky, 2006). In as much as Welfare is associated with needs of the people, it is aimed to cover beyond what people need and with it to look into wellbeing, to provide people with choices and enable them to choose their personal goals, aims, objectives or ambitions. Welfare state is therefore a government that completely provides for the welfare of its citizens. This is what makes it involved in the lives of the citizens by providing for their physical, material and social needs instead of the people providing for their own. The main purpose for this is to create economic equality among the citizens and ensure that the standards of living are equitable for all citizens. Among the things provided by the welfare state are education, housing, sustenance, healthcare, unemployment insurance, pension, supplemental income, and equal wages by controlling price and wages, public transport, childcare among other goods and services. The provisions are paid for through government insurance programs and taxes. Arguments for welfare. A number of arguments for collective provision have been put across. Most governments should be in a position to recognize the arguments which support the provision of the welfare (Spicker, 2008). The arguments are however not about whether the welfare should exist but how much provision should be allocated. The arguments supporting welfare are; Humanitarian, where the major concern is poverty and this makes provision of welfare a key concern in the developments associated with welfare provision. The other argument is Religious. The major religions in the world advocate for charity as a religious duty and almost all religions require collective responsibility in the community where one lives or what can be referred to as mutual social responsibility. The third argument for the provision of welfare is Mutual Self-Interest. This is due to the many welfare systems developed from a combination of mutualistic activities as opposed to those from state activities. The other argument is democratic in that the social protection is put in place hand-in-hand with the existing democratic rights. Finally, the argument for provision of welfare is what is referred to as Practical. The explanation behind this is that welfare provision has social and economic benefits. The countries which have widespread systems of social protection towards the citizens tend to be richer with very low levels of poverty; however it is hard to establish what comes before the other, the welfare or the wealth (Holetzky, 2006). It is important to give welfare to the poor in any society (Vives, 1999). This can be done by for instance provision of work for those who are able but poor. This will curb idleness among those who are not financially stable provided that the victims are fit for work health wise and age wise. The state can help those living in poverty by ensuring that they have learnt a certain trade which will ensure that they can be able to provide for themselves and any other people who depend on them. The other group of people who should be given welfare are the dissipated. Much as their fortunes have dissipated through dissolute living, the state should ensure that no one dies of hunger. This group of people should however be given smaller rations and more demanding duties. In order to ensure that the welfare is not put to the wrong use, the states should ensure that all the institutions dealing with state welfare are corruption free. On the same note, everyone concerned with the welfare should perform their tasks humanely and with a lot of kindness, intimidation should never be put to use since this will be considered abuse of the power bestowed to them. Welfare should be given to all citizens who cannot access the basic requirements and there are a number of advantages; first, the states without any beggars are honoured since greater peace prevails whenever everyone is provided for. The state also gains in that more citizens become more morally upright, law abiding and useful to a state which sustains them or provides a means of livelihood for them (Vives, 1999). The second advantage is that there will be fewer incidents of violence and other evils associated with poverty like theft, murders, capital offences etc. The reason for this is that poverty has a way of luring people into bad habits and provoking crime. Provision of welfare ensures greater concord among people of different classes, which are the poor and the wealthy. Arguments against welfare. The radical right are for the objection to the provision of welfare. The reason for this is that welfare violates the freedom of the people, its redistribution according to the radical right is theft and taxation can only be equated to forced labour (Spicker, 2008). Their arguments are based on the assumptions that; everyone has the absolute right to use property as it pleases them. The people in any society are interdependent and the production of property depends on social arrangements, the rights to that property are conventional and the liability to taxation is part of those conventions. The other assumption is that the people are not for the idea of welfare provision since the redistributive arrangements are based on coercion. However, this is not necessarily true due to the fact that several countries in the world have developed welfare systems on a voluntary or mutualist basis for instance in Denmark, Finland and Sweden. The other assumption is that the rights of the individual are the supreme factor in the entire process. However, it does not make sense for a person to own all the food in the region while all the others are staving, the others should at least have some moral claim on it. Consequently, much as the property rights are important, not many people would argue that they are more important than other moral values. The other argument that the radical rights have against the provision of welfare is that welfare state has undesirable effects in practice. Economically, the argument is that economic development is more important for welfare than social provision. The radical rights also argue that the welfare state tends to undermine economic performance but no evidence has been provided to support this argument. Socially, the welfare state is accused of boosting dependency and in a way trapping people to in poverty. Proof on the dynamics of poverty indicates that dependency and poverty can not be classified as long-term. Although both tend to affect people at different stages in the course of their lives, the population of those who claim for welfare is always changing and not constant as it might appear (Spicker, 2008). The radical right argues for a residual system but the result of this is the separation and exclusion of people by the welfare. Though most of the advanced societies provide for the state welfare, its philosophy is that most of the beneficiaries who are capable of caring for them are not motivated to improve their lives when they have the option of depending on the government. This tends to breed hatred or resentment those who work hard but are forced to pay for the people who are not working through high taxes. This can easily lead to class warfare and prevent equality among citizens (Spicker, 2008). Conclusion. In Contemporary Australia, the state welfare is justified as a result of their benefits to the nation. According to Saunders (2007), there is an organized welfare lobby in Australia which keeps pushing for higher government spending. They use the poverty statistics to justify their claims that poverty is widespread and threatening to get worse. Australian poverty is a product of joblessness and the solution for these is not to increase welfare payments but to ensure more of those who claim welfare get into work. The number of those relying on welfare payments as a source of income has risen from three percent in the 1960s to sixteen percent. There is need for the re-examination of how the tax and welfare systems interact since most people pay a lot of income tax to the government only for their money to be tossed back to them through family payments and government welfare services (Saunders, 2007). The reason why it was established that the Australians could be more self-reliant especially if they were allowed to keep more of their earnings in place of the reduction on their level of dependence on the government provisions. References. Alcock, P., Erskine, A., May M. (Eds) (2003). The students companion to social policy. Blackwell. Holetzky, S. (2006) Conjecture Corporation. What is a Welfare State? Wise Geek. Retrieved on 23/08/08 from http://www.wisegeek.com Legrand, J. Propper, C. Robinson, R. (1992). The economics of social problems, Macmillan Saunders P. (2007). The Welfare State. The Center for Independent Studies. Retrieved on 23/08/08 from http://www.cis.org.au/research/welfare. Spicker, P. (2008). Social policy: Themes and Approaches. Policy Press. Titmuss, R. M. (1963). Essays on the Welfare State. Allen and Unwin. Vives, J. L. (1968). Vives’ Introduction to Wisdom. Teachers College Press, Columbia University: New York. Vives, J. L. (1999). On Assistance to the Poor. University of Toronto Press: Toronto.

Conflict in the Screwtape Letters by C.S. Lewis Essay example -- essay

Action and reaction are the very threads that make up the fabric of our universe, conflicting forces that wage war against each other in hopes of gaining the upper hand and overcoming the other. Virtue versus desire, faith versus logic, tradition versus change, light versus darkness, (Republicans versus Democrats,) and good versus evil-all opposing facets of their respective fields that switch off control in a never-ending dance of push and pull. We witness one of these never-ending dances first hand in C.S. Lewis' novel, The Screwtape Letters, as a high-ranked demon named Screwtape advises his naà ¯ve and inexperienced nephew on the best methods to use in corrupting his assigned ?Patient? and preventing the ?Enemy? from gaining the ?Patient? for himself. But though it may come from the evil perspective of an expert demon, the piece is really a reflection of the internal struggle in humans between good and evil, Lord and Satan, on a small, subtle, and discreet level. The conflict portrayed in this novel addresses the everyday sins and mindsets that more often than not lead to the downfall of a seemingly good and righteous person (unlike the focus on absolute evils such as outright dishonesty and murder common in other works on morality). The main character?s struggle plays out this idea that it is the little things a person does that have the biggest impact in his or her life, an idea that can be applied not only to the salvation of our spiritual immortality, but also to the value of our mortal lives as well. We learn from Screwtape?s many letters of advice to his nephew Wormwood (thirty-one letters to be exact) the many strategies that evil spirits and demons employ in order to secure human spiritual morality. Contrary... ...dentify our mistakes and learn from them in order for us to reap any benefit from those mistakes, unfortunately for us it is the small mistakes that are the most dangerous and the hardest to identify and correct. Lucky for us, Screwtape didn?t do a very good job of hiding his letters to his nephew because it means less work for us and more trouble for all demon-kind. ?It does not matter how small the sins are provided that their cumulative effect is to edge the man away from the Light and out into the Nothing. Murder is no better than cards if cards can do the trick. Indeed the safest road to Hell is the gradual one?the gentle slope, soft underfoot, without sudden turnings, without milestones, without signposts,? Your affectionate uncle Screwtape (Lewis 60-61). Cited Sources ?Lewis, Clive S. The Screwtape Letters. San Francisco: HarperCollins, Inc., 2001.

Dishonor in Antigone and Chronicle of a Death Foretold Essay -- Greek

The belief and concept of dishonor in the Greek and Colombian culture of ‘Antigone,’ by Sophocles, and ‘Chronicle of a Death Foretold,’ by Gabriel Garcia Marquez, is a deciding aspect that blinds characters moral values. It is evident that in both societies Greek and Colombian, a family or an individual without honor is an outcast to the community. As honor plays a drastic role in outlining the culture of the society. Therefore the belief that a perpetrator has brought dishonor upon the family, or community foreshadows punishment for the individual, often conveyed through death. Sophocles provides a setting in his play, Antigone, where the honor code of rules and principles that govern the Greek community, are based upon Creon’s patriarchy of immoral natural law. Where the worst death is a ‘clouded’ (97) one whose foggy setting brings dishonor upon the individual, and his family. Polynecies is an example; Sophocles uses to highlight the significance of a burial, in the Greek society. Polynecies is a victim of Creon's code of honor, which through grotesque diction, Sophocles describes his body as being immorally exposed the â€Å"vultures† left â€Å"unwept and unburied’ (29) after miserably fighting turning against his brother in a battle for Thebes, in which he turned against him. Causing him to ’[die] outside the law’ (59) bringing great dishonor to the corpse as it is with a lack of respect, left unburied due to tyranny, but also damns it for all time and dishonors his family. Creon’s laws are flaw, harsh and immoral, they take on the ‘gods who live forever’ (788), up to the point were his actions ‘seize [his] good mind,’ (791) and deprive him of moral thought. Creon’s restrictive democracy motivates Polynecie’s sister Antigone, who... ...reshadow a death through the blinding process of moral values and actions taken by an individual that has, or whose family has been dishonored and wishes to regain their dignity. Sophocles in Antigone portrays the theme of dishonor through the cultural value of burial in the Greek society; Gabriel Garcia Marquez on the other hand, condemns the legate of marriage to honor in Chronicle of a Death Foretold. Both cultural norms manage in context to inflict with the character’s family honor, which leads them into taking immoral and ruthless actions that lead to the innocent death of Antigone and Santiago Nasser, both innocent individuals. Works Cited Garcà ­a, Mà ¡rquez Gabriel, and Gregory Rabassa. Chronicle of a Death Foretold: A Novel. New York: Vintage International, 2003. Print Sophocles, and Paul Woodruff. Antigone. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub., 2001. Print

Important Publication of Official Statistics

Important Publication of Official Statistics A few important publications containing official statistics for general use are given below: Statistical abstract of India: This annual publication is brought out by the CSO and contains the statistics of various sectors of the Indian economy at least for the last five years. This also gives state-wise statistics at least for the last year. India- Pocketbook economic information: This publication is brought out annually by the Ministry of Finance. It deals with the various aspects of economy particularly financial, foreign aid and international economic comparisons.Basic statistics relating to Indian economy: This is brought out by the statistics and surveys division of planning commission on an annual basis. It contains basic indicators on various aspects of economy for a number of back years on time series basis. India- a reference manual: This is published annually by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting and it contains informat ion on various aspect of Indian economy. Estimation of National Product, savings and capital formation- This is generally known as a white paper on national income and is published annually by the CSO.It ontains estimates of national income, savings, capital formation and consumption, expenditure together with national and public sector accounts. Agriculture situation in India: This is published by the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation (Directorate of Economics and Statistics) on a monthly basis. This publication contains all available current statistics together with notes and articles on the assessment of current agriculture situation in the country. Available district- wise data is also reported from time to time. Monthly statistics on production of selected industries in India: This publication ofCSO contains data on output, capacity and index numbers and several other variables relating to more than 90 industries. Reserve Bank of India Bulletin: This is published by the R BI on a monthly basis and it contains elaborated data on various aspects of Indian economy including a detailed data on currency and finance situation. Economic survey: This is published annually by the Department of Economics Affair and Ministry of Finance on the eve of the presentation of budget. The document contains an elaborated review of all aspects of Indian economy. Banking statistics- Basic Statistical returns: This is published twice in a year by the

Reflective Paper: Quality Systems, Control and Motivation Essay

Identify functional and dysfunctional control systems within your own organization. Dell believes that an effective strategy for improving quality and that it has achieved results in their organizations. The enterprise faces several issues on the road to long-term continuous improvement. This list of causes provides a checklist of organizational barriers which represent ongoing quality struggles for many quality organizations. This list can be broken down into three categories of quality problems: People problems which cover individuals not performing their jobs effectively, communication breakdowns, lack of teamwork/conflict, poorly trained workers and lack of worker input and commitment. Management problems which include improper supervision, conflicting/unrealistic goals, poor planning and organizing, lack of resources, and lack of top management support. Quality system problems which encompass ineffective corrective action procedures, people not aware that quality problems exist (ineffective feedback mechanisms), ineffective measurement procedures, unrealistic quality standards, and technology/equipment problems (Longenecker & Scazzero, 1993). I believe that taken together, long-term quality improvement efforts must address specific people, management and system problems that either develop or persist over time. In reviewing the specific examples of ongoing quality problems presented in the study, it is interesting to note the almost total absence of technical problems. Deming has observed that technical problems are often relatively easier to address where quality is concerned (Deming, 1984). The majority of problems are softer in nature: people and managerial factors. This supports the widely-held view that people and managerial issues are the key to long-term quality improvement and that these issues require an ongoing adjustment (alignment) in an organization’s overall operating culture and management practice. Interpret criteria for developing and evaluating control systems. In reviewing managerial perceptions of quality control and systems of Dell, a number of rather interesting paradoxes and contrasts emerge. First, managers strongly believe that TQM efforts improves quality, yet their organizations are not so likely to implement quality principles fully into their overall management philosophy and strategy. Second, while there are tools such as TQM that are perceived as effective in improving quality, enthusiasm and support for the process diminish with time. Third, while most managers admit that there is still room for improvement and that ongoing quality problems exist, I feel that Dell is less than completely focused on dealing with long-term quality problems. These factors are issues which all quality organizations must strive to address on a long-term basis and organizations would be well-served to consider the following lessons in the development and evaluation of quality control systems: The conduct an organizational audit of the current qualty system. Maturing quality organizations are well served to survey management personnel on the issues identified in their respective organisations to evaluate their present perception of the organization’s quality processes and the consequences of these perceptions. Dell managers should be surveyed first to assess their belief in the quality process and willingness to support this effort in both word and deed. Workers should then be surveyed to elicit their perceptions and input of the organization’s quality process to determining their support and confidence in the system. Such an audit permits the firm a chance to determine its status along the quality continuum and provides input on what procedure the firm must undertake to move forward in the quality system maturation process. The feedback garnered from this process can be an invaluable source of information and impetus for change. Dell management support/action is critical to long-term quality improvement. It is a well-documented fact that management support is needed to get any quality effort started. What is not always apparent is the necessity of the continued involvement and support managers must demonstrate to keep quality efforts viable. To this end, top management must make continuous improvement an ongoing priority for managers throughout the organization. Managers’ roles and duties must be specified with continuous improvement as part and parcel of every manager’s job description. Involvement in correction action teams, providing leadership on defining and refining quality standards, providing the resources necessary for improvement, developing and implementing feedback mechanisms and coaching are all critical elements of a manager’s job as a quality leader. Managers must be selected, trained, promoted, appraised, and rewarded on their ability to foster continuous improvement in their areas of responsibility within the organization. Without this focus, managers’ enthusiasm and support for quality will weaken over time creating less than positive role models for the rest of the organization. Remember that people are the key to long-term improvement. Technical problems are dealt with early on in the quality process, overall. Based on Longenecker & Scazzero’s (1993) study, it is   suggested that long-term improvement is built on systematically considering the â€Å"human side of quality†. Towards this goal, employees across levels are required to be aptly led by their superiors. In addition,   employees need to be properly trained to perform their jobs, need to develop effective problem-solving/conflict-resolution skills, need effective communication skills, and to be taught how to function in team oriented cultures. Moreover, employee input must be systematically tapped by managers on issues which affect both continuous improvement and the workplace. Feedback and coaching for the individual is paramount for overall Dell quality efforts to progress. In summary, practice and research indicate that workers are the critical ingredients in long-term quality improvement and that they respond favourably when given proper support and leadership. The human component cannot be shrugged off or neglected without negative outcomes. Dell quality systems must continuously improve TQM. Once an efficient improvement system is established within an organization, quality will be improved. Yet, even the most effective systems must undergo transition and mature with the dynamic demands associated and with changing organizational needs. This indicates that systematic approaches to long-term quality improvement must be occasionally critiqued and feedback provided to improve quality improvement systems. Towards this objective, corrective action procedures must be changed and streamlined, feedback mechanisms must be constantly assessed and enhanced, quality standards must evolve and measurement procedures must be meaningful and cost-efficient. Without adjustments, these quality systems can serve as obstacles rather than assist quality improvement and be perceived as barriers to improvement. Moreover, technical improvements must be made to operating systems to keep them viable and technologically up-to-date. If quality systems fail to practise continuous improvement, the outcomes for the firm will be both negative and ironic. At the individual level, a number of reflective queries are in order for us operating in stable and mature quality international organizations such as Dell: Am I practising continuous improvement on an ongoing basis? Am I encouraging my subordinates to practise the principles of TQM through my actions? Am I providing leadership in addressing ongoing/persistent quality problems? Am I providing leadership to improve our existing quality improvement processes? Are we using corrective action procedures in an effective and efficient manner? (Longenecker & Scazzero, 1993) These are issues that TQM managers must be reflect on a personal basis. The responses to these questions are crucial and represent an authentic evaluation of a firm’s leadership commitment to long-term continuous improvement. In conclusion, TQM systems were believed to be effective by practising managers in this global research. And yet, these systems require constant support and leadership to sustain their effectiveness in the long term. Moreover, literature indicate that it is worthwhile to assess the perceptions of practising managers to identify the status and needs for an ongoing TQM process. We can learn that while achieving long-term quality improvement is a noble goal, a host of barriers exist that threaten this process. Without a commitment to eliminate these barriers, and to the practice of TQM, quality improvement for international organisations is threatened. The outcome is a quality improvement process hoped for by competitors that will lose its effectiveness through time. Hard earned quality gains can be futile without constant persisitence and diligence from all organizational members. It is for this reason that quality will always be a strategic tool in the global marketplace because the quality achievements of yesterday mean little to our competitors and customers. Analyze and illustrate the essentials of quality management and the techniques that are associated with it One manager has shared his lament on the practice of total quality management, as follows: â€Å"The problem isn’t that we don’t know what to do but rather that we struggle to do what we know we should do on a daily basis where our quality improvement process is concerned †¦ and we’ve been at TQM for over six years already† (Longenecker & Scazzero, 1993). The exercise of total quality management TQM) as a strategy for gaining competitive advantage has been adopted by an increasing number of international organisations, and has somehow evolved to become a competitive mandate. The assumption of TQM is quite apparent: quality improvement can be attained if a firm drafts a management philosophy of continuous improvement and breeds the required best practices (Juran, 1993). Gradually and patiently, majority of international organisations have been effective at the implementation of quality practices during the previous decade, with more than satisfactory outcomes. For instance, United Parcel Service, Motorola, Ford, Cadillac, Nestlà ©, Airbus, Shell, Toyota and Phillips are some of the more popular TQM achievers in the global marketplace. However, it may be worthy to note that their quality practices took substantial time and patience to conceptualise, draft, and implement. Much more so, was the time necessary for these best practices to mature and to be maintained. Quality gurus such as Deming, Juran, Scholtes and Crosby taught that organisations ought to adopt a quality improvement approach from a long-term perspective. They also gave a warning that attaining some quality improvement may somewhat lead to complacency. Moreover, they concur that obstacles to quality may include a whole host of factors, encompassing both novel and current organisationa issues (Walton, 1986). Quality experts contend that majority of quality enhancement research are inclined on concentrating on the initial start-up phase of the improvement process and is somewhat lacking on considering long-term challenges (Mann & Kehoe, 1995). Studies on organisational life cycles and organisational development has apparently illustrated that as firms grow, mature, and grow more stable, several issues are brought forth at each cycle of the phase. Certain quality gurus hold a similar perspective on the   quality improvement cycle that exists as the firm proceeds through an initial start-up, followed by a development phase at which maturity as a quality firm ensues (Harrington, 1987). The initial quality start-up phase necessitates breaking exercises the organisation has been accustomed to, and applying critical quality practices. Moreover, this phase calls for the development of an organisational framework that will allow the systematic resolution of quality issues and building credibility for the improvement process (Harrington, 1987). The TQM development phase necessitates that the firm build on initial successes, expand the degree of organization involvement, developing better â€Å"systems† to support quality improvement efforts and refining corrective action procedures. The TQM maturity phase is distinguished by TQM practices being strongly anchored on in organizational strategy and planning, management decision making, human resource practices and support systems improvement. The foundational practices of total quality management must be focused on and refined at each phase of the TQM cycle for the organization to become increasingly effective at continuous improvement. This enhanced proficiency at improving quality is imperative since quality standards and expectations are constantly increasing in the ultra-competitive global market (Gehari, 1993). Summarizing these points, firms must learn and mature on an ongoing basis to preclude quality processes from being stagnant or even becoming ineffective over time. Deming has argued that management complacency and a lack of organizational discipline can prevent improvement efforts from maturing and developing to the next level (Deming, 1982). Juran has argued that these same tendencies can cause even the best TQM systems to break down with the passage of time and changes in key personnel (Juran, 1988). Previous research has demonstrated the painstaking and labour-intensive challenges of properly implementing TQM practices (Juran, 1988). Once these practices are in place and quality begins to improve, it is easy for an organization to become complacent or lose focus several years into the quality improvement process. Deming (1982) has advocated that effective and long-term quality improvement requires the following: A belief on the part of managers that their TQM process is effective; A belief on the part of managers that there is still a need for improvement; A commitment on the part of all organizational members to practise TQM on an ongoing basis; The ability to focus on and respond to long-term quality problems; Maintaining organizational support for TQM efforts; and Integrating TQM into the organization’s management philosophy and strategy. The manager’s lament in our opening quote succinctly summarized this concern when he stated, â€Å"it isn’t that we don’t know what to do [to improve quality] but rather we struggle to do what we know we should do on a daily basis†. In my work at Dell, I need to continuously ensure that I live quality, especially since I have external customer encounters each day. This is a core facet of my job. These quality principles are vital to the successful performance of my function, and also determines the degree of quality by which I execute it. At a personal level, I strive to live quality both in my professional and personal life; that is, I am keenly aware that the outcomes in my life are determined by the quality of the decisions I make. References Deming, W.E. (1982). Quality and productivity and competitive position. Cambridge, MA: MIT. Deming, W.E. (1984). Out of the crisis. Cambridge, MA: MIT. Gehari, R.R. (1993). Quality value chain – a meta-synthesis of frontiers of quality movement. Academy of Management Executive, 7(2), 29-42. Harrington, H.J. (1987). The improvement process. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Juran, J. (1988). Juran on planning for quality. New York, NY: Free Press. Juran, J. (1993). Made in USA: a Renaissance in quality. Harvard Business Review, July-August 1993, 42-50. Longenecker, C.O., Scazzero, J.A. (1993). Total quality management from theory to practice: a case study. International Journal of Reliability & Quality Management, 10(5), 24-31. Mann, R. & Kehoe, D. (1995). Factors affecting the implementation and success of TQM. International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, 12 (1). Walton, M. (1986). The Deming management method. New York, NY: Perigee Books.